Frequently asked questions

Is Outcome safe to use in extern APIs?

Outcome is specifically designed for use in the public interfaces of multi-million line codebases. result’s layout is hard coded to:

struct trivially_copyable_result_layout {
  union {
    value_type value;
    error_type error;
  };
  unsigned int flags;
};

… if both value_type and error_type are TriviallyCopyable, otherwise:

struct non_trivially_copyable_result_layout {
  value_type value;
  unsigned int flags;
  error_type error;
};

This is C-compatible if value_type and error_type are C-compatible. std::error_code is probably C-compatible, but its layout is not standardised (though there is a normative note in the standard about its layout). Hence Outcome cannot provide a C macro API for standard Outcome, but we can for Experimental Outcome.

Does Outcome implement over-alignment?

Outcome propagates any over-alignment of the types you supply to it as according to the layout specified above. Therefore the ordinary alignment and padding rules for your compiler are used.

Does Outcome implement the no-fail, strong or basic exception guarantee?

(You can read about the meaning of these guarantees at cppreference.com)

If for the following operations:

• Construction
• Assignment
• Swap

… the corresponding operation in all of value_type, error_type (and exception_type for outcome) is noexcept(true), then result and outcome’s operation is noexcept(true). This propagates the no-fail exception guarantee of the underlying types. Otherwise the basic guarantee applies for all but Swap, under the same rules as for the struct layout type given above e.g. value would be constructed first, then the flags, then the error. If the error throws, value and status bits would be as if the failure had not occurred, same as for aborting the construction of any struct type.

It is recognised that these weak guarantees may be unsuitable for some people, so Outcome implements swap() with much stronger guarantees, as one can locally refine, without too much work, one’s own custom classes from result and outcome implementing stronger guarantees for construction and assignment using swap() as the primitive building block.

The core ADL discovered implementation of strong guarantee swap is strong_swap(bool &all_good, T &a, T &b) . This can be overloaded by third party code with custom strong guarantee swap implementations, same as for std::swap(). Because strong guarantee swap may fail when trying to restore input state during handling of failure to swap, the all_good boolean becomes false if restoration fails, at which point both results/outcomes get marked as tainted via has_lost_consistency() .

It is up to you to check this flag to see if known good state has been lost, as Outcome never does so on your behalf. The simple solution to avoiding having to deal with this situation is to always choose your value, error and exception types to have non-throwing move constructors and move assignments. This causes the strong swap implementation to no longer be used, as it is no longer required, and standard swap is used instead.

Does Outcome have a stable ABI and API?

The layout changed for all trivially copyable types between Outcome v2.1 and v2.2, as union based storage was introduced. From v2.2 onwards, the layout is not expected to change again.

If v2.2 proves to be unchanging for 24 months, Outcome’s ABI and API will be formally fixed as the v2 interface and written into stone forever. Thereafter the ABI compliance checker will be run per-commit to ensure Outcome’s ABI and API remains stable. This is currently expected to occur in 2022.

Note that the stable ABI and API guarantee will only apply to standalone Outcome, not to Boost.Outcome. Boost.Outcome has dependencies on other parts of Boost which are not stable across releases.

Note also that the types you configure a result or outcome with also need to be ABI stable if result or outcome is to be ABI stable.

Can I use result<T, EC> across DLL/shared object boundaries?

A known problem with using Windows DLLs (and to smaller extent POSIX shared libraries) is that global objects may get duplicated: one instance in the executable and one in the DLL. This behaviour is not incorrect according to the C++ Standard, as the Standard does not recognize the existence of DLLs or shared libraries. Therefore, program designs that depend on globals having unique addresses may become compromised when used in a program using DLLs.

Nothing in Outcome depends on the addresses of globals, plus the guaranteed fixed data layout (see answer above) means that different versions of Outcome can be used in different DLLs, and it probably will work okay (it is still not advised that you do that as that is an ODR violation). However, one of the most likely candidate for EC – std::error_code – does depend on the addresses of globals for correct functioning.

The standard library is required to implement globally unique addresses for the standard library provided std::error_category implementations e.g. std::system_category(). User defined error code categories may not have unique global addresses, and thus introduce misoperation.

boost::system::error_code, since version 1.69 does offer an opt-in guarantee that it does not depend on the addresses of globals if the user defined error code category opts-in to the 64-bit comparison mechanism. This can be seen in the specification of error_category::operator== in Boost.System synopsis.

Alternatively, the status_code in Experimental Outcome, due to its more modern design, does not suffer from any problems from being used in shared libraries in any configuration.

Why two types result<> and outcome<>, rather than just one?

result is the simple, success OR failure type.

outcome extends result with a third state to transport, conventionally (but not necessarily) some sort of “abort” or “exceptional” state which a function can return to indicate that not only did the operation fail, but it did so catastrophically i.e. please abort any attempt to retry the operation.

A perfect alternative to using outcome is to throw a C++ exception for the abort code path, and indeed most programs ought to do exactly that instead of using outcome. However there are a number of use cases where choosing outcome shines:

1. Where C++ exceptions or RTTI is not available, but the ability to fail catastrophically without terminating the program is important.
2. Where deterministic behaviour is required even in the catastrophic failure situation.
3. In unit test suites of code using Outcome it is extremely convenient to accumulate test failures into an outcome for later reporting. A similar convenience applies to RPC situations, where C++ exception throws need to be accumulated for reporting back to the initiating endpoint.
4. Where a function is “dual use deterministic” i.e. it can be used deterministically, in which case one switches control flow based on .error(), or it can be used non-deterministically by throwing an exception perhaps carrying a custom payload.

How badly will including Outcome in my public interface affect compile times?

The quick answer is that it depends on how much convenience you want.

The convenience header <result.hpp> is dependent on <system_error> or Boost.System, which unfortunately includes <string> and thus drags in quite a lot of other slow-to-parse stuff. If your public interface already includes <string>, then the impact of additionally including Outcome will be low. If you do not include <string>, unfortunately impact may be relatively quite high, depending on the total impact of your public interface files.

If you’ve been extremely careful to avoid ever including the most of the STL headers into your interfaces in order to maximise build performance, then <basic_result.hpp> can have as few dependencies as:

1. <cstdint>
2. <initializer_list>
3. <iosfwd>
4. <new>
5. <type_traits>
6. <cstdio>
7. <cstdlib>
8. <cassert>

These, apart from <iosfwd>, tend to be very low build time impact in most standard library implementations. If you include only <basic_result.hpp>, and manually configure basic_result<> by hand, compile time impact will be minimised.

(See reference documentation for basic_result<T, E, NoValuePolicy> for more detail.

Is Outcome suitable for fixed latency/predictable execution coding such as for high frequency trading or audio?

Great care has been taken to ensure that Outcome never unexpectedly executes anything with unbounded execution times such as malloc(), dynamic_cast<>() or throw. Outcome works perfectly with C++ exceptions and RTTI globally disabled.

Outcome’s entire design premise is that its users are happy to exchange a small, predictable constant overhead during successful code paths, in exchange for predictable failure code paths.

In contrast, table-based exception handling gives zero run time overhead for the successful code path, and completely unpredictable (and very expensive) overhead for failure code paths.

For code where predictability of execution, no matter the code path, is paramount, writing all your code to use Outcome is not a bad place to start. Obviously enough, do choose a non-throwing policy when configuring outcome or result such as all_narrow to guarantee that exceptions can never be thrown by Outcome (or use the convenience typedef for result, unchecked<T, E = varies> which uses policy::all_narrow).

What kind of runtime performance impact will using Outcome in my code introduce?

It is very hard to say anything definitive about performance impacts in codebases one has never seen. Each codebase is unique. However to come up with some form of measure, we timed traversing ten stack frames via each of the main mechanisms, including the “do nothing” (null) case.

A stack frame is defined to be something called by the compiler whilst unwinding the stack between the point of return in the ultimate callee and the base caller, so for example ten stack allocated objects might be destructed, or ten levels of stack depth might be unwound. This is not a particularly realistic test, but it should at least give one an idea of the performance impact of returning Outcome’s result or outcome over say returning a plain integer, or throwing an exception.

The following figures are for Outcome v2.1.0 with GCC 7.4, clang 8.0 and Visual Studio 2017.9. Figures for newer Outcomes with newer compilers can be found at https://github.com/ned14/outcome/tree/develop/benchmark.

High end CPU: Intel Skylake x64

This is a high end CPU with very significant ability to cache, predict, parallelise and execute out-of-order such that tight, repeated loops perform very well. It has a large μop cache able to wholly contain the test loop, meaning that these results are a best case performance.

As you can see, throwing and catching an exception is expensive on table-based exception handling implementations such as these, anywhere between 26,000 and 43,000 CPU cycles. And this is the hot path situation, this benchmark is a loop around hot cached code. If the tables are paged out onto storage, you are talking about millions of CPU cycles.

Simple integer returns (i.e. do nothing null case) are always going to be the fastest as they do the least work, and that costs 80 to 90 CPU cycles on this Intel Skylake CPU.

Note that returning a result<int, std::error_code> with a “success (error code)” is no more than 5% added runtime overhead over returning a naked int on GCC and clang. On MSVC it costs an extra 20% or so, mainly due to poor code optimisation in the VS2017.9 compiler. Note that “success (experimental status code)” optimises much better, and has almost no overhead over a naked int.

Returning a result<int, std::error_code> with a “failure (error code)” is less than 5% runtime overhead over returning a success on GCC, clang and MSVC.

You might wonder what happens if type E has a non-trivial destructor, thus making the result<T, E> have a non-trivial destructor? We tested E = std::exception_ptr and found less than a 5% overhead to E = std::error_code for returning success. Returning a failure was obviously much slower at anywhere between 300 and 1,100 CPU cycles, due to the dynamic memory allocation and free of the exception ptr, plus at least two atomic operations per stack frame, but that is still two orders of magnitude better than throwing and catching an exception.

We conclude that if failure is anything but extremely rare in your C++ codebase, using Outcome instead of throwing and catching exceptions ought to be quicker overall:

• Experimental Outcome is statistically indistinguishable from the null case on this high end CPU, for both returning success and failure, on all compilers.
• Standard Outcome is less than 5% worse than the null case for returning successes on GCC and clang, and less than 10% worse than the null case for returning failures on GCC and clang.
• Standard Outcome optimises poorly on VS2017.9, indeed markedly worse than on previous point releases, so let’s hope that Microsoft fix that soon. It currently has a less than 20% overhead on the null case.

Mid tier CPU: ARM Cortex A72

This is a four year old mid tier CPU used in many high end mobile phones and tablets of its day, with good ability to cache, predict, parallelise and execute out-of-order such that tight, repeated loops perform very well. It has a μop cache able to wholly contain the test loop, meaning that these results are a best case performance.

This ARM chip is a very consistent performer – null case, success, or failure, all take almost exactly the same CPU cycles. Choosing Outcome, in any configuration, makes no difference to not using Outcome at all. Throwing and catching a C++ exception costs about 90,000 CPU cycles, whereas the null case/Outcome costs about 130 - 140 CPU cycles.

There is very little to say about this CPU, other than Outcome is zero overhead on it. The same applied to the ARM Cortex A15 incidentally, which I test cased extensively when deciding on the Outcome v2 design back after the first peer review. The v2 design was chosen partially because of such consistent performance on ARM.

Low end CPUs: Intel Silvermont x64 and ARM Cortex A53

These are low end CPUs with a mostly or wholly in-order execution core. They have a small or no μop cache, meaning that the CPU must always decode the instruction stream. These results represent an execution environment more typical of CPUs two decades ago, back when table-based EH created a big performance win if you never threw an exception.

The first thing to mention is that clang generates very high performance code for in-order cores, far better than GCC. It is said that this is due to a very large investment by Apple in clang/LLVM for their devices sustained over many years. In any case, if you’re targeting in-order CPUs, don’t use GCC if you can use clang instead!

For the null case, Silvermont and Cortex A53 are quite similar in terms of CPU clock cycles. Ditto for throwing and catching a C++ exception (approx 150,000 CPU cycles). However the Cortex A53 does far better with Outcome than Silvermont, a 15% versus 100% overhead for Standard Outcome, and a 4% versus 20% overhead for Experimental Outcome.

Much of this large difference is in fact due to calling convention differences. x64 permits up to 8 bytes to be returned from functions by CPU register. result<int> consumes 24 bytes, so on x64 the compiler writes the return value to the stack. However ARM64 permits up to 64 bytes to be returned in registers, so result<int> is returned via CPU registers on ARM64.

On higher end CPUs, memory is read and written in cache lines (32 or 64 bytes), and reads and writes are coalesced and batched together by the out-of-order execution core. On these low end CPUs, memory is read and written sequentially per assembler instruction, so only one load or one store to L1 cache can occur at a time. This makes writing the stack particularly slow on in-order CPUs. Memory operations which “disappear” on higher end CPUs take considerable time on low end CPUs. This particularly punishes Silvermont in a way which does not punish the Cortex A53, because of having to write multiple values to the stack to create the 24 byte object to be returned.

The conclusion to take away from this is that if you are targeting a low end CPU, table-based EH still delivers significant performance improvements for the success code path. Unless determinism in failure is critically important, you should not use Outcome on in-order execution CPUs.

Why is implicit default construction disabled?

This was one of the more interesting points of discussion during the peer review of Outcome v1. v1 had a formal empty state. This came with many advantages, but it was not felt to be STL idiomatic as std::optional<result<T>> is what was meant, so v2 has eliminated any legal possibility of being empty.

The expected<T, E> proposal of that time (May 2017) did permit default construction if its T type allowed default construction. This was specifically done to make expected<T, E> more useful in STL containers as one can say resize a vector without having to supply an expected<T, E> instance to fill the new items with. However there was some unease with that design choice, because it may cause programmers to use some type T whose default constructed state is overloaded with additional meaning, typically “to be filled” i.e. a de facto empty state via choosing a magic value.

For the v2 redesign, the various arguments during the v1 review were considered. Unlike expected<T, E> which is intended to be a general purpose Either monad vocabulary type, Outcome’s types are meant primarily for returning success or failure from functions. The API should therefore encourage the programmer to not overload the successful type with additional meaning of “to be filled” e.g. result<std::optional<T>>. The decision was therefore taken to disable implicit default construction, but still permit explicit default construction by making the programmer spell out their intention with extra typing.

To therefore explicitly default construct a result<T> or outcome<T>, use one of these forms as is the most appropriate for the use case:

1. Construct with just in_place_type<T> e.g. result<T>(in_place_type<T>).
2. Construct via success() e.g. outcome<T>(success()).
3. Construct from a void form e.g. result<T>(result<void>(in_place_type<void>)).

How far away from the proposed std::expected<T, E> is Outcome’s checked<T, E>?

Not far, in fact after the first Boost.Outcome peer review in May 2017, Expected moved much closer to Outcome, and Outcome deliberately provides checked<T, E = varies> as a semantic equivalent.

Here are the remaining differences which represent the divergence of consensus opinion between the Boost peer review and WG21 on the proper design for this object:

1. checked<T, E> has no default constructor. Expected has a default constructor if T has a default constructor.
2. checked<T, E> uses the same constructor design as std::variant<...>. Expected uses the constructor design of std::optional<T>.
3. checked<T, E> cannot be modified after construction except by assignment. Expected provides an .emplace() modifier.
4. checked<T, E> permits implicit construction from both T and E when unambiguous. Expected permits implicit construction from T alone.
5. checked<T, E> does not permit T and E to be the same, and becomes annoying to use if they are constructible into one another (implicit construction self-disables). Expected permits T and E to be the same.
6. checked<T, E> throws bad_result_access_with<E> instead of Expected’s bad_expected_access<E>.
7. checked<T, E> models std::variant<...>. Expected models std::optional<T>. Thus:
   • checked<T, E> does not provide operator*() nor operator->
   • checked<T, E> .error() is wide (i.e. throws on no-value) like .value(). Expected’s .error() is narrow (UB on no-error). [checked<T, E> provides .assume_value() and .assume_error() for narrow (UB causing) observers].
8. checked<T, E> uses success<T> and failure<E> type sugars for disambiguation. Expected uses unexpected<E> only.
9. checked<T, E> does not implement (prone to unintended misoperation) comparison operators which permit implicit conversion e.g. checked<T> == T will fail to compile. Instead write unambiguous code e.g. checked<T> == success(T) or checked<T> == failure(T).
10. checked<T, E> defaults E to std::error_code or boost::system::error_code. Expected does not default E.

In fact, the two are sufficiently close in design that a highly conforming expected<T, E> can be implemented by wrapping up checked<T, E> with the differing functionality:

/* Here is a fairly conforming implementation of P0323R3 `expected<T, E>` using `checked<T, E>`.
It passes the reference test suite for P0323R3 at
https://github.com/viboes/std-make/blob/master/test/expected/expected_pass.cpp with modifications
only to move the test much closer to the P0323R3 Expected, as the reference test suite is for a
much older proposed Expected.

Known differences from P0323R3 in this implementation:
- `T` and `E` cannot be the same type.
- `E` must be default constructible.
- No variant storage is implemented (note the Expected proposal does not actually require this).
*/

namespace detail
{
  template <class T, class E> using expected_result = OUTCOME_V2_NAMESPACE::checked<T, E>;
  template <class T, class E> struct enable_default_constructor : public expected_result<T, E>
  {
    using base = expected_result<T, E>;
    using base::base;
    constexpr enable_default_constructor()
        : base{OUTCOME_V2_NAMESPACE::in_place_type<T>}
    {
    }
  };
  template <class T, class E> using select_expected_base = std::conditional_t<std::is_default_constructible<T>::value, enable_default_constructor<T, E>, expected_result<T, E>>;
}
template <class T, class E> class expected : public detail::select_expected_base<T, E>
{
  static_assert(!std::is_same<T, E>::value, "T and E cannot be the same in this expected implementation");
  using base = detail::select_expected_base<T, E>;

public:
  // Inherit base's constructors
  using base::base;
  expected() = default;

  // Expected takes in_place not in_place_type
  template <class... Args>
  constexpr explicit expected(std::in_place_t /*unused*/, Args &&... args)
      : base{OUTCOME_V2_NAMESPACE::in_place_type<T>, std::forward<Args>(args)...}
  {
  }

  // Expected always accepts a T even if ambiguous
  OUTCOME_TEMPLATE(class U)
  OUTCOME_TREQUIRES(OUTCOME_TPRED(std::is_constructible<T, U>::value))
  constexpr expected(U &&v)
      : base{OUTCOME_V2_NAMESPACE::in_place_type<T>, std::forward<U>(v)}
  {
  }

  // Expected has an emplace() modifier
  template <class... Args> void emplace(Args &&... args) { *static_cast<base *>(this) = base{OUTCOME_V2_NAMESPACE::in_place_type<T>, std::forward<Args>(args)...}; }

  // Expected has a narrow operator* and operator->
  constexpr const T &operator*() const & { return base::assume_value(); }
  constexpr T &operator*() & { return base::assume_value(); }
  constexpr const T &&operator*() const && { return base::assume_value(); }
  constexpr T &&operator*() && { return base::assume_value(); }
  constexpr const T *operator->() const { return &base::assume_value(); }
  constexpr T *operator->() { return &base::assume_value(); }

  // Expected has a narrow error() observer
  constexpr const E &error() const & { return base::assume_error(); }
  constexpr E &error() & { return base::assume_error(); }
  constexpr const E &&error() const && { return base::assume_error(); }
  constexpr E &error() && { return base::assume_error(); }
};
template <class E> class expected<void, E> : public OUTCOME_V2_NAMESPACE::result<void, E, OUTCOME_V2_NAMESPACE::policy::throw_bad_result_access<E, void>>
{
  using base = OUTCOME_V2_NAMESPACE::result<void, E, OUTCOME_V2_NAMESPACE::policy::throw_bad_result_access<E, void>>;

public:
  // Inherit base constructors
  using base::base;

  // Expected has a narrow operator* and operator->
  constexpr void operator*() const { base::assume_value(); }
  constexpr void operator->() const { base::assume_value(); }
};
template <class E> using unexpected = OUTCOME_V2_NAMESPACE::failure_type<E>;
template <class E> unexpected<E> make_unexpected(E &&arg)
{
  return OUTCOME_V2_NAMESPACE::failure<E>(std::forward<E>(arg));
}
template <class E, class... Args> unexpected<E> make_unexpected(Args &&... args)
{
  return OUTCOME_V2_NAMESPACE::failure<E>(std::forward<Args>(args)...);
}
template <class E> using bad_expected_access = OUTCOME_V2_NAMESPACE::bad_result_access_with<E>;

Why doesn’t Outcome duplicate std::expected<T, E>’s design?

There are a number of reasons:

1. Outcome is not aimed at the same audience as Expected. We target developers and users who would be happy to use Boost. Expected targets the standard library user.

2. Outcome believes that the monadic use case isn’t as important as Expected does. Specifically, we think that 99% of use of Expected in the real world will be to return failure from functions, and not as some sort of enhanced or “rich” Optional. Outcome therefore models a subset of Variant, whereas Expected models an extended Optional.

3. Outcome believes that if you are thinking about using something like Outcome, then for you writing failure code will be in the same proportion as writing success code, and thus in Outcome writing for failure is exactly the same as writing for success. Expected assumes that success will be more common than failure, and makes you type more when writing for failure.

4. Outcome goes to considerable effort to help the end user type fewer characters during use. This results in tighter, less verbose, more succinct code. The cost of this is a steeper learning curve and more complex mental model than when programming with Expected.

5. Outcome has facilities to make easier interoperation between multiple third party libraries each using incommensurate Outcome (or Expected) configurations. Expected does not do any of this, but subsequent WG21 papers do propose various interoperation mechanisms, one of which Outcome implements so code using Expected will seamlessly interoperate with code using Outcome.

6. Outcome was designed with the benefit of hindsight after Optional and Expected, where how those do implicit conversions have been found to be prone to writing unintentionally buggy code. Outcome simultaneously permits more implicit conversions for ease of use and convenience, where those are unambigiously safe, and prevents other implicit conversions which the Boost peer review reported as dangerous.

Is Outcome riddled with undefined behaviour for const, const-containing and reference-containing types?

The short answer is not any more in C++ 20 and after, thanks to changes made to C++ 20 at the Belfast WG21 meeting in November 2019.

The longer answer is that before C++ 20, use of placement new on types containing const member types where the resulting pointer was thrown away is undefined behaviour. As of the resolution of a national body comment, this is no longer the case, and now Outcome is free of this particular UB for C++ 20 onwards.

This still affects C++ before 20, though no major compiler is affected. Still, if you wish to avoid UB, don’t use const types within Outcome types (or any optional<T>, or vector<T> or any STL container type for that matter).

More detail

Before the C++ 14 standard, placement new into storage which used to contain a const type was straight out always undefined behaviour, period. Thus all use of placement new within a result<const_containing_type>, or indeed an optional<const_containing_type>, is always undefined behaviour before C++ 14. From [basic.life] for the C++ 11 standard:

Creating a new object at the storage location that a const object with static, thread, or automatic storage duration occupies or, at the storage location that such a const object used to occupy before its lifetime ended results in undefined behavior.

This being excessively restrictive, from C++ 14 onwards, [basic_life] now states:

If, after the lifetime of an object has ended and before the storage which the object occupied is reused or released, a new object is created at the storage location which the original object occupied, a pointer that pointed to the original object, a reference that referred to the original object, or the name of the original object will automatically refer to the new object and, once the lifetime of the new object has started, can be used to manipulate the new object, if:

— the storage for the new object exactly overlays the storage location which the original object occupied, and

— the new object is of the same type as the original object (ignoring the top-level cv-qualifiers), and

— the type of the original object is not const-qualified, and, if a class type, does not contain any non-static data member whose type is const-qualified or a reference type, and

— neither the original object nor the new object is a potentially-overlapping subobject

Leaving aside my personal objections to giving placement new of non-const non-reference types magical pointer renaming powers, the upshot is that if you want defined behaviour for placement new of types containing const types or references, you must store the pointer returned by placement new, and use that pointer for all further reference to the newly created object. This obviously adds eight bytes of storage to a result<const_containing_type>, which is highly undesirable given all the care and attention paid to keeping it small. The alternative is to use std::launder , which was added in C++ 17, to ‘launder’ the storage into which we placement new before each and every use of that storage. This forces the compiler to reload the object stored by placement new on every occasion, and not assume it can be constant propagated, which impacts codegen quality.

As mentioned above, this issue (in so far as it applies to types containing user supplied T which might be const) has been resolved as of C++ 20 onwards, and it is extremely unlikely that any C++ compiler will act on any UB here in C++ 17 or 14 given how much of STL containers would break.